Plant disease models and forecasting: changes in principles and applications over the last 50 years

This review gives a perspective of selected advances made since the middle of the 20th century in plant disease modelling, and the associated increase in the number of models published during that time frame. This progress can be mainly attributed to advances in (i) sensors and automatic environmental data collection technology, (ii) instrumentation and methods for studying botanical epidemiology, and (iii) data analytics and computer science. We review the evolution of techniques for developing data-based (empirical) models and process-based (mechanistic) models using the wheat rusts as a case study. We also describe the increased importance of knowledge about biological processes for plant disease modeling by using apple scab as a second case study. For both wheat rusts and apple scab, we describe how the models have evolved over the last 50 years by considering certain milestones that have been achieved in disease modeling. Finally, we describe how plant disease models are used as part of a multi-modelling approach to develop decision-making tools in the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).