The Challenge of Migration in a Janus-Faced Europe

Chapter 1 - Introduction. The Unexpected Legacy of the post-WWII Migratory Regime This chapter illustrates how, in order to understand the current attitude towards immigration in its challenging aspects, it is necessary to go back to the origin of the European migratory regime, based on the concept of Guest Worker. The latter defined migration as a pure economic phenomenon, and denied migrants inclusion in the community of citizens; legitimized a differential treatment towards migrant workers; cultivated the illusion of the temporary nature of migration. Since it clashes with the philosophy of rights and solidarity embedded in the European democracies, this model has been repeatedly remoulded. Therefore, European countries had to come to terms with the instances of inclusion, equalization, and diversity’s recognition. All this notwithstanding, due to the enduring influence of the postures embedded in an economicistic approach, three main tension factors continue to feature Europe’s attitude towards migration, thus shaping the image of a Janus-faced Europe, perpetually oscillating between opposite tendencies. Keywords: migration management; migratory regimes; temporary labour model; Europe. Chapter 2 - The (Un)Ethical Foundations of the Borders of Membership. Inclusion versus Exclusion After having postponed the question of migrants’ inclusion into the community of legitimate members, European societies have been challenged by the (un)ethical foundations of their membership’s borders, highlighting the ineradicable tension between petitions for inclusion and petitions for exclusion. On the one hand, European States have experienced both a significant arrival of non-economic migrants, and an ample process of migrants’ inclusion in the system of citizenship rights. On the other hand, they have put in place several attempts to select new entrants, and to modulate the eligibility to rights basing on arguable systems of civic stratification. Moreover, the formal inclusion in the system of citizenship rights has not been sufficient to neutralize exclusion and discriminatory pressures. The fragile equilibrium between inclusion and exclusion is mirrored both in the restrictions with which foreigners accede to rights, and in the gap between formal and substantial equity, particularly experienced by migrant offspring. Keywords: citizenship; citizenship rights; civic stratification; national borders; European citizenship; denizenship. Chapter 3 - The “Schizophrenia” of the European Approach. Equality versus Discrimination In Europe, the management of labour migration is traditionally based on a concept of complementarity between autochthonous and foreign work. Perceived as advantageous for both employers and domestic workers, this concept is indeed intrinsically discriminatory. Moreover, it has engendered the production of a structurally disadvantaged migrant population, thus negatively impacting on the economy, the welfare system and the social cohesion. Indeed, despite the legislative developments and the multiple efforts to support their integration and full inclusion, the goal of overcoming the discrimination suffered by immigrants and their children has repeatedly clashed with social expectations about the role of migrant workers, which influence not only policies and practices, but also migrants’ self-perception and their attitude towards the hosting society. These phenomena represent a very stumbling block for the European future, if only because of the significant demographic weight of the population with a migratory background. Keywords: migration management; economic migrants; discrimination; equal opportunities; selective migration policies; labour market; educational systems. Chapter 4 - The Identity Challenge. Diversity versus Uniformity After having acknowledged the stable settlement of immigrant families and communities, European countries have been increasingly challenged by the “diversity” embedded in the population with a migratory background, made even more complex by its disadvantageous condition. Along with numerous attempts to acknowledge and “exploit” migration-related diversity, European societies have been engaged in various strategies to affirm a principle of uniformity. This aim is pursued, on the one hand, through migratory schemes intended to limit and select new arrivals. On the other hand, through policies aimed at making new entrants more “integrable”, if nothing else from an economic point of view. In this scenario, migrant offspring’s condition is paradigmatic. On the one hand, migrants’ children are the best archetypes of contemporary “diverse” society. On the other, they bring with them the legacy of the migrant condition, which will influence both their opportunity structure and their identity choices. Keywords: cultural and religious pluralism; interculturalism; diversity management; family reunification; integrationist turn; identity strategies. Chapter 5 - The (Un)Ethical Boundaries of the European Fortress. Openness versus Closure The recent refugee crisis has laid bare the main weaknesses of existing systems of protection, as well as the ambivalent European attitude towards migrants and asylum seekers. Facing the growing complexity of human mobility, European States have introduced new statuses of protection, different than the refugee one, thus overcoming the strict definition of forced migration, and have increasingly tolerated the presence of denied applicants. At the same time migration –including the humanitarian one– is more and more perceived and described as a security issue. Therefore, many controversial strategies have been put in place, with the aim of reducing new arrivals. These measures have not managed to alleviate the distrust of public opinion about the ability of their governments to “protect” the national borders, and appear open to strong criticism, when not in open contrast with international law. Finally, they ended up questioning the very same European project. Keywords: refugees; asylum seekers; securitization strategy; international protection; forced migrations; unaccompanied minors. Chapter 6 - Conclusions. The refugee crisis: A Prophetic Challenge for European Societies Retracing the key-points of the book, this concluding chapter stresses how the “economicism” of the traditional European approach towards migration, once confronted with the philosophy of rights and solidarity, has generated three couples of opposing processes –inclusion/exclusion; equality/discrimination; diversity/uniformity–, which make immigration a definitely challenging phenomenon. This legacy must be considered also to understand the oscillation between openness and closure in Europe’s response to (forced) migrations, as it has emblematically emerged during the refugee crisis. Furthermore, it would encourage Europe to face the decline of the cornerstones on which modern democracies have been founded. Finally, understanding the origins and the consequences of long-term ambivalences is a first step to overcome the unresolved cruxes of the European approach. And to understand how at stake is not only the sustainability of European accumulation regimes and the maintenance of social cohesion, but also the very identity of European societies. Keywords: refugee crises; European identity; nations, economic citizenship, migration policies; ethic of migration.